The content presented here represents the most current version of this section, which was printed in the 24th edition of Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater.

8211 DUCKWEED

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8211 A. Introduction References
1 Hillman WS. The Lemnaceae, or duckweeds: a review of the descriptive and experimental literature. Bot Rev. 1961;27:221–287. Google Scholar
2 Wang W. Literature review on duckweed toxicity testing. Environ Res. 1990;51(1):7–22. Google Scholar
3 Wang W. Phytotoxicity tests of aquatic pollutants by using common duckweed. Environ Pollut. (Ser. B) 1986;11:1. Google Scholar
4 King JM, Coley KS. Toxicity of aqueous extracts of natural and synthetic oils to three species of Lemna. In: Bahner R, Hansen D, eds. Aquatic toxicology and hazard assessment: 8th Symposium. Special Technical Publication 891. West Conshohocken (PA): ASTM International; 1985, p. 302–305. Google Scholar
5 Hughes JS, Alexander MM, Balu K. An evaluation of appropriate expressions of toxicity in aquatic plant bioassays as demonstrated by the effects of atrazine on algae and duckweed; Special Technical Publication 971. West Conshohocken (PA): ASTM International; 1988. Google Scholar
6 Rowe EL, Ziobro RJ, Wang CJK, Dence CW. The use of an alga Chlorella pyrenoidosa and a duckweed Lemna perpusilla as test organisms for toxicity bioassays of spent bleaching liquors and their compounds. Environ Pollut Series A.1982;27(4):289–296. Google Scholar
7 Wang W, Williams J. Screening and biomonitoring of industrial effluents using phytotoxicity tests. Environ Toxicol Chem. 1988;7(8):645–652. Google Scholar
8 Taraldsen TE, Norberg-King TJ. New method for determining toxicity using duckweed (Lemna minor). Environ Toxicol Chem. 1990;9(6):761–767. Google Scholar
9 Fairchild JR, Ruessler DW, Haverland PS, Carlson AR. Comparative sensitivity of Selenastrum capricornutum and Lemna minor to ­sixteen herbicides. Archiv Env Contam Toxicol. 1997;32:353–357. Google Scholar
10 American Society for Testing & Materials. Standard guide for conducting static toxicity tests with Lemna gibba G3; E1415-91 (2004). In: Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol. 11.06. West Conshohocken (PA): ASTM International; 2008. Google Scholar
11 Environment Canada. Biological Test Method: Test for measuring the inhibition of growth using the freshwater macrophyte, Lemna minor; EPS. 1/RM/37. Ottawa (Ont): Environment Technical Center, Environment Canada; 1999. (Environmental Protection Series) Google Scholar
12 Organization for Environmental Growth and Development. Lemna sp. Growth Inhibition Test. In: OECD. Guidelines for the testing of chemicals, Section 2: Effects on biotic systems, Test No. 221. Paris, France: OECD Publishing; 2006. Google Scholar
8211 A. Introduction Bibliography
Holst RW, Ellwanger TC. Pesticide assessment guidelines, Subdivision J, Hazard evaluation: Nontarget plants; EPA 540/9-82-020. Washington DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; 1982. Google Scholar
Larson JH, Frost PC, Lamberti GA. Variable toxicity of ionic liquid forming chemicals to Lemna minor and the influence of dissolved organic matter. Environ Toxicol Chem. 2008;27(3):676–681. Google Scholar
8211 B. Selecting and Prepa ring Test Organisms References
1 Correll DS, Correll HB. Aquatic and wetland plants of southwestern United States. Washington DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; 1972. Google Scholar
2 King JM, Coley KS. Toxicity of aqueous extracts of natural and synthetic oils to three species of Lemna. In: Bahner R, Hansen D, eds. Aquatic toxicology and hazard assessment: 8th Symposium. Special Technical Publication 891. West Conshohocken (PA): ASTM International; 1985, p. 302–305. Google Scholar
3 Hughes JS, Alexander MM, Balu K. An evaluation of appropriate expressions of toxicity in aquatic plant bioassays as demonstrated by the effects of atrazine on algae and duckweed; Special ­Technical Publication 971. West Conshohocken (PA): ASTM ­International; 1988. Google Scholar
8211 C . Toxicity Test Procedure References
1 Davis JA. Comparison of static-replacement and flow-through bioassays using duckweed, Lemna gibba G-3; EPA-560/6-81-003. Washington DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; 1981. Google Scholar
2 Walbridge CT. A Flow-through testing procedure with duckweed (Lemna minor L.); EPA-600/3-77-108. Duluth (MN): U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; 1977. Google Scholar
3 Wang W. Toxicity reduction of photo processing wastewaters. J ­Environ Sci Health Part A. 1992;27(5):1313–1328. Google Scholar
4 Taraldsen JE, Norberg-King TJ. New method for determining effluent toxicity using duckweed (Lemna minor). Environ Toxicol Chem. 1990;9(6):761–767. Google Scholar
5 Wang W, Williams J. Screening and biomonitoring of industrial effluents using phytotoxicity tests. Environ Toxicol Chem. 1988;7(8):645–652. Google Scholar
6 Wang W. Chromate ion as a reference toxicant in aquatic phytotoxicity tests. Environ Toxicol Chem. 1987;6(12):953–960. Google Scholar
7 Wang W. The effect of river water on phytotoxicity of Ba, Cd, and Cr. Environ Poll Ser B) 1986;11(3):193–204. Google Scholar
8211 C . Toxicity Test Procedure Bibliography
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Aquatic plant toxicity testing using Lemna spp. Tier I. and II: Ecological effects guidelines OPPTS 850.4400 (draft); EPA 712-C-96-156. Washington DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 1986. Google Scholar

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Standard Methods Committee of the American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, and Water Environment Federation. 8211 duckweed In: Standard Methods For the Examination of Water and Wastewater. Lipps WC, Baxter TE, Braun-Howland E, editors. Washington DC: APHA Press.

DOI: 10.2105/SMWW.2882.162

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