9510 A. Introduction References
1. International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV). Virus Taxonomy. International Union of Microbiology Societies (IUMS) [accessed 2020 June]. http://www.ictvonline.org. Google Scholar
2. Rao VC, Melnick JM. Environmental virology: Aspects of Microbiology. Washington DC: American Society of Microbiology, 1986. Google Scholar
3. Feachem RG, Bradley DJ, Garelick H, Mara DD. Sanitation and disease: Health aspects of excreta and wastewater management. Washington DC: World Bank Group, 1983. (World Bank studies in water supply and sanitation, No. 3) Google Scholar
4. Williams Jr FP, Akin EW. Waterborne viral gastroenteritis. J Amer Water Works Assoc. 1986;78(1):34–39. Google Scholar
5. Feachem R, Garelick H, Slade J. Enteroviruses in the environment. Trop Dis Bull. 1981;78(3):185–230. Google Scholar
6. American Water Works Association. Waterborne pathogens. Manual No. 48. 2nd ed. Denver (CO): American Water Works Association; 2006. Google Scholar
7. Abbaszadegan M, LeChevallier MW, Gerba C. Occurrence of viruses in US ground waters. J Amer Water Works Assoc. 2003;95(9):107–120. Google Scholar
8. Myrmel M, Berg EMM, Grinde B, Rimstad E. Enteric viruses in inlet and outlet samples from sewage treatment plants. J Water Health 2006;4(2):197–209. Google Scholar
9. Nordgren J, Matussek A, Mattsson A, Svensson L, Lindgren PE. Prevalence of norovirus and factors influencing virus concentrations during one year in a full-scale wastewater treatment plant. Water Res. 2009;43(4):1117–1125. Google Scholar
10. Straub TM, zu Bentrup KH, Orosz-Coghlan P, Dohnalkova A, Mayer BK, Bartholomew RA, Valdez CO, Bruckner-Lea CJ, Gerba CP, Abbaszadegan MA, Nickerson CA. In vitro cell culture infectivity assay for human noroviruses. Emerg Infect Dis. 2007;13(3):396–403. Google Scholar
11. Stellrecht KA, Lamson DM, Romero JR. Enteroviruses and parechoviruses. In: Carroll KC, Pfaller MA, Landry ML, McAdam AJ, Patel R, Richter SS, Warnock DW, eds. Manual of clinical microbiology, 12th ed. Washington DC: American Society for Microbiology; 1980. Google Scholar
12. Kapikian AZ, Yolken RH, Greenberg HB, Wyatt RG, Kalica AR, Chanock RM, Kim HW. Gastroenteritis viruses. In: Schmidt NJ, Emmons RW, eds. Diagnostic procedures for viral, rickettsial and chlamydial infections. Washington DC: American Public Health Association; 1989. Google Scholar
13. Sobsey MD, Oglesbee SE, Wait DA, Cuenca AI. Detection of hepatitis A virus (HAV) in drinking water. Water Sci Technol. 1984;17(10):23–38. Google Scholar
14. Smith EM, Gerba CP. Development of a method for detection of human rotavirus in water and sewage. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1982;43(6):1440–1450. Google Scholar
15. Sato K, Inaba Y, Shinozaki T, Fujii R, Matumoto M. Isolation of human rotavirus in cell cultures: a brief report. Arch Virol. 1981;69:155–160. Google Scholar
16. Hejkal TW, Smith EM, Gerba CP. Seasonal occurrence of rotavirus in sewage. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1984;47(3):588–590. Google Scholar
17. Jiang X, Estes MK, Metcalf TG. Detection of hepatitis A virus by hybridization with single-stranded RNA probes. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1987;53(10):2487–2495. Google Scholar
18. Ford TE. Microbiological safety of drinking water: United States and global perspectives. Env Health Perspect. 1999;107(suppl 1):191–206. Google Scholar
19. Yezli S, Otter JA. Minimum infective dose of the major human respiratory and enteric viruses transmitted through food and the environment. Food Environ Virol. 2011;3(1):1–30. Google Scholar
20. Ward RL, Bernstein DI, Young EC, Sherwood JR, Knowlton DR, Schiff GM. Human rotavirus studies in volunteers: Determination of infectious dose and serological response to infection. J Infect Dis. 1986;154(5):871–880. Google Scholar
21. Borchardt MA, Bertz PD, Spencer SK, Battigelli DA. Incidence of enteric viruses in groundwater from household wells in Wisconsin. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2003;69(2):1172–1180. Google Scholar
22. Akin E. A review of infective dose data for enteroviruses and other enteric microorganisms in human subjects. In: Microbial health considerations of soil disposal of domestic wastewaters; EPA-600/9-83-017. Washington DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; 1981. Google Scholar
23. Gerba CP, Haas CN. Assessment of risks associated with enteric viruses in contaminated drinking water. In: Lichtenberg JJ, Winter JA, Weber CI, Frankin L, eds. Chemical and biological characterization of sludges, sediments, dredge spoils, and drilling muds; ASTM STP 976. West Conshohocken (PA): ASTM International; 1988. Google Scholar
24. Craun GF. Waterborne disease in the United States. Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press; 1986. Google Scholar
25. Craun GF, Calderon RL, Craun MF. Waterborne outbreaks in the United States, 1971-2000. In: Pontius FW, ed. Drinking water regulation and health, New York (NY): Wiley-Interscience; 2003, p. 45. Google Scholar
26. Propato M, Uber JG. Vulnerability of water distribution systems to pathogen intrusion: How effective is a disinfectant residual? Environ Sci Technol. 2004;(13):3713–3722. Google Scholar
27. Fout GS, Schaefer III FW, Messer JW, Dahling DR, Stetler RE. ICR microbial laboratory manual; EPA/600/R-95/178. Washington (DC): U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; 1996. Google Scholar
28. Kirmeyer GJ, Friedman M, Martel K, Howie D, LeChevallier M, Abbaszadegan M, Karim M, Funk J, Harbour J. Pathogen intrusion into the distribution system. Denver (CO): American Water Works Association; 2001. Google Scholar
29. Abbaszadegan M, Huber MS, Gerba CP, Pepper IL. Detection of enteroviruses in groundwater with the polymerase chain reaction. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1993;59(5):1318–1324. Google Scholar
30. Abbaszadegan M, Stewart P, LeChevallier M. A strategy for the detection of viruses in groundwater by PCR. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1999;65(2):444–449. Google Scholar
31. Reynolds KA, Gerba CP, Abbaszadegan M, Pepper IL. ICC/PCR detection of enteroviruses and hepatitis A virus in environmental samples. Can J Microbiol. 2001;47(2):153–157. Google Scholar
32. Fout GS, Martinson BC, Moyer MW, Dahling DR. A multiplex reverse transcription-PCR method for detection of human enteric viruses in groundwater. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2003;69(6):3158–3164. Google Scholar
33. Hamza IA, Jurzik L, Wilhelm M, Überla K. Detection and quantification of human bocavirus in river water. J Gen Virol. 2009;90(11):2634–2637. Google Scholar
34. Sobsey MD. Quality of currently available methodology for monitoring viruses in the environment. Environ Internat. 1982;7(1):39–51. Google Scholar
35. Haramoto E, Katayama H, Oguma K, Yamashita H, Nakajima E, Ohgaki S. One-year monthly monitoring of Torque teno virus (TTV) in wastewater treatment plants in Japan. Water Res. 2005;39(10):200–2013. Google Scholar
36. Jiang SC, Chu W, He J. Seasonal detection of human viruses and coliphage in Newport Bay, California. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2007;73(20):6468–6474. Google Scholar
37. Buras N. Concentration of enteric viruses in wastewater and effluent: A two year survey. Water Res. 1976;10(4):295–298. Google Scholar
38. Sobsey MD. Methods for detecting enteric viruses in water and wastewater. In: Berg G, Bodily HL, Lennette EH, Melnick JL, Metcalf TG, eds. Viruses in water. Washington DC: American Public Health Association; 1976. Google Scholar
39. Gerba CP, Goyal SM. Methods in environmental virology. New York (NY): Marcel Dekker; 1982. Google Scholar
9510 B. Virus Concentration from Small Sample Volumes by Adsorption to and Elution from Microporous Filters References
1. Farrah SR, Gerba CP, Wallis C, Melnick JL. Concentration of viruses from large volumes of tap water using pleated membrane filters. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1976;31(2):221–226. Google Scholar
2. Farrah SR, Shah DO, Ingram LO. Effects of chaotropic and antichaotropic agents on elution of poliovirus adsorbed on membrane filters. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA. 1081;78(2):1229–1232. Google Scholar
3. Sobsey MD, Jones BL. Concentration of poliovirus from tap water using positively charged microporous filters. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1979;37(3):588–595. Google Scholar
4. Sobsey MD, Glass JS. Poliovirus concentration from tap water with electropositive adsorbent filters. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1980;40(2):201–210. Google Scholar
5. Sobsey MD, Moore RS, Glass JS. Evaluating adsorbent filter performance for enteric virus concentrations in tap water. J Amer Water Works Assoc. 1981;73(10):542–548. Google Scholar
6. Chang LT, Farrah SR, Bitton G. Positively charged filters for virus recovery from wastewater treatment plant effluents. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1981;42(5):921–924. Google Scholar
7. Hejkal TW, Keswick B, LaBelle RL, Gerba CP, Sanchez Y, Dreesman G, Hafkin B, Melnick JL. Viruses in a community water supply associated with an outbreak of gastroenteritis and infectious hepatitis. J Amer Water Works Assoc. 1982;74(6):318–321. Google Scholar
8. Schlaak M, Tischer E, Lopez JM. Evaluation of current techniques for the isolation of viruses in water [in German]. Zentralbl Bakteriol Microbiol Hyg B. 1983;177(1–2):127–140. Google Scholar
9. Guttman-Bass N, Armon R. Concentration of Simian rotavirus SA-11 from tap water by membrane filtration and organic flocculation. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1983;45(3):850–855. Google Scholar
10. Rose JB, Singh SN, Gerba CP, Kelley LM. Comparison of microporous filters for concentration of viruses from wastewater. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1984;47(5):989–992. Google Scholar
11. Raphael RA, Sattar SA, Springthorpe VS. Rotavirus concentration from raw water using positively charged filters. J Virol Methods 1985;11(2):131–140. Google Scholar
12. Nupen EM, Bateman BW. The recovery of viruses from drinking water by means of an in-line electropositive cartridge filter. Water Sci Technol. 1985;17(10):63–69. Google Scholar
13. Toranzos GA, Gerba CP. An improved method for the concentration of rotaviruses from large volumes of water. J Virol Methods. 1989;24:131–140. Google Scholar
14. Sobsey MD, Glass JS, Carrick RJ, Jacobs RR, Rutala WA. Evaluation of the tentative standard method for enteric virus concentration from large volumes of tap water. J Amer Water Works Assoc. 1980;72(5):292–299. Google Scholar
15. Sobsey MD, Glass JS, Jacobs RR, Rutala WA. Modifications of the tentative standard method for improved virus recovery efficiency. J Amer Water Works Assoc. 1980;72(6):350–355. Google Scholar
16. Gibbons CD, Rodriguez RA, Tallon L, Sobsey MD. Evaluation of positively charged alumina nanofibre cartridge filters for the primary concentration of noroviruses, adenoviruses and male-specific coliphages from seawater. J Appl Microbiol. 2010;109(2):635–641. Google Scholar
17. Wellings FM, Lewis AL, Mountain CW. Demonstration of solids-associated virus in wastewater and sludge. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1976;31(3):354–358. Google Scholar
18. Farrah SR, Goyal SM, Gerba CP, Wallis C, Shaffer PTB. Characteristics of humic acid and organic compounds concentrated from tapwater using the aquella virus concentrator. Water Res. 1976;10(10):897–901. Google Scholar
19. Wallis C, Melnick JL. Concentration of viruses from sewage by adsorption on Millipore membranes. Bull World Health Org. 1967;36(2):219–225. Google Scholar
20. Sobsey MD, Wallis C, Henderson M, Melnick JL. Concentration of enteroviruses from large volumes of water. Appl Microbiol. 1973;26(4):529–534. Google Scholar
21. Schmidt NJ. Tissue culture technics for diagnostic virology. In: Lennette EH, Schmidt NJ, eds. Diagnostic procedures for viral and rickettsial infections, 5th ed. Washington DC: American Public Health Association; 1979. Google Scholar
22. Rao VC, Chandorkar U, Rao NU, Kumaran P, Lakhe SB. A simple method for concentrating and detecting viruses in wastewater. Water Res. 1972;6(12):1565–1576. Google Scholar
23. Gerba CP, Farrah SR, Goyal SM, Wallis C, Melnick JL. Concentration of enteroviruses from large volumes of tap water, treated sewage, and seawater. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1978;35(3):540–548. Google Scholar
9510 C. Virus Concentration from Large Sample Volumes by Adsorption to and Elution from Microporous FiltersReferences
1. Katzenelson E, Fattal B, Hostovesky T. Organic flocculation: an efficient second-step concentration method for the detection of viruses in tap water. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1976;32(4):638–639. Google Scholar
2. Bitton G, Feldberg BN, Farrah SR. Concentration of enteroviruses from seawater and tap water by organic flocculation using non-fat dry milk and casein. Water Air Soil Pollut. 1979;10:187–195. Google Scholar
3. Payment P, Trudel M. A simple low cost apparatus for conditioning large volumes of water for virological analysis. Can J Microbiol. 1980;26(4):548–550. Google Scholar
4. Payment P, Trudel M. Improved method for the use of proportioning injectors to condition large volumes of water for virological analysis. Can J Microbiol. 1981;27(4):455–457. Google Scholar
9510 D. Virus Concentration by Aluminum Hydroxide Adsorption-Precipitation References
1. Payment P, Gerba CP, C. Wallis C, Melnick JL. Methods for concentrating viruses from large volumes of estuarine water on pleated membranes. Water Res. 1976;10(10):893–896. Google Scholar
2. Farrah SR, Goyal SM, Gerba CP, Wallis C, Melnick JL. Concentration of enteroviruses from estuarine water. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1977;33(5):1192–1196. Google Scholar
3. Wallis C, Melnick JL. Concentration of viruses on aluminum hydroxide precipitates. In: Berg G, ed. Transmission of viruses by the water route. New York (NY): Interscience (Wiley); 1967. Google Scholar
4. Wallis C, Melnick JL. Concentration of viruses on aluminum and calcium salts. Amer J Epidemiol. 1967;85(3):459–468. Google Scholar
5. Cookson JT Jr. The chemistry of virus concentration by chemical methods. In: Developments in Industrial Microbiology. Washington DC: American Institute of Biological Sciences; 1974, Volume 15, p. 160–173. Google Scholar
6. Lydholm B, Nielsen AL. Methods for detection of virus in wastewater, applied to samples from small scale treatment systems. Water Res. 1979;14(2):169–173. Google Scholar
7. Selna MW, Miele RP. Virus sampling in wastewater-field experiences. J Environ Eng Div. 1977;103(4):693–705. Google Scholar
8. Dobberkau HJ, Walter R, Rudiger S. Methods for virus concentration from water. In: M. Goddard M, Butler M, eds. Viruses and wastewater treatment: Proceedings of the International Symposium on Viruses and Wastewater Treatment. New York (NY): Pergamon Press; 1981. Google Scholar
9. Farrah SR, Goyal SM, Gerba CP, Wallis C, Melnick JL. Concentration of poliovirus from tap water onto membrane filters with aluminum chloride at ambient pH levels. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1978;35(3):624–626. Google Scholar
10. Farrah SR, Goyal SM, Gerba CP, Conklin RH, Smith EM. Comparison between adsorption of poliovirus and rotavirus by aluminum hydroxide and activated sludge flocs. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1978;35(2):360–363. Google Scholar
11. Sobsey MD, Gerba CP, Wallis C, Melnick JL. Concentration of enteroviruses from large volumes of turbid estuary water. Can J Microbiol. 1977;23(6):770–778. Google Scholar
12. Homma A, Sobsey MD, Wallis C, Melnick JL. Virus concentration from sewage. Water Res. 1973;7:945–950. Google Scholar
9510 E. Hydroextraction-Dialysis with Polyethylene Glycol References
1. Sobsey MD. Methods for detecting enteric viruses in water and wastewater. In: Berg G, Bodily HL, Lennette EH, Melnick JL, Metcalf TG, eds. Viruses in Water. Washington DC: American Public Health Association; 1976. Google Scholar
2. Cliver DO. Detection of enteric viruses by concentration with polyethylene glycol. In: Berg G, ed. Transmission of viruses by the water route. New York (NY): Interscience; 1967. Google Scholar
3. Shuval HI, Cymbalista S, Fattal B, Goldblum N. Concentration of enteric viruses in water by hydro-extraction and two-phase separation. In: Berg G, ed. Transmission of viruses by the water route. New York (NY): Interscience; 1967. Google Scholar
4. Wellings FM, Lewis AL, Mountain CW, Pierce LV. Demonstration of virus in groundwater after effluent discharge onto soil. Appl Microbiol. 1975;29(6):751–757. Google Scholar
5. Ramia S, Sattar SA. Second-step concentration of viruses in drinking and surface waters using polyethylene glycol hydroextraction. Can J Microbiol. 1979;25(5):587–592. Google Scholar
9510 F. Recovery of Viruses from Suspended Solids in Water and Wastewater References
1. Schaub SA, Sagik BP. Association of enteroviruses with natural and artificially introduced colloidal solids in water and infectivity of solids-associated virions. Appl Microbiol. 1975;30(2):212–222. Google Scholar
2. Wellings FM, Lewis AL, Mountain CW. Viral concentration techniques for field sample analysis. In: Baldwin LB, Davidson JM, Gerber JF, eds. Virus aspects of applying municipal waste to land. Gainesville (FL): University of Florida, 1976. Google Scholar
3. Wellings FM, Lewis AL, Mountain CW. Virus survival following wastewater spray irrigation of sandy soils. In: Malina JF Jr Sagik BP, eds. Virus survival in water and wastewater systems. Austin (TX): Center for Research in Water Resources, University of Texas; 1974. Google Scholar
4. Berg G, Dahling DR. Method for recovering viruses from river water solids. Appl Environ. Microbiol. 1980;39(4):850–853. Google Scholar
5. Gerba CP. Detection of viruses in soil and aquatic sediments. In: Gerba CP, Goyal SM, eds. Methods in environmental virology. New York (NY): Marcel Dekker, Inc.; 1982. Google Scholar
6. Farrah, S.R. 1982. Isolation of viruses associated with sludge particles. In: Gerba CP, Goyal SM, eds. Methods in environmental virology. New York (NY): Marcel Dekker, Inc.; 1982. Google Scholar
7. Mendez II, Hermann LL, Hazelton PR, Coombs KM. A comparative analysis of Freon substitutes in the purification of reovirus and calicivirus. J Virol Meth. 2000;90(1):59–67. Google Scholar
9510 G. Assay and Identification of Viruses in Sample Concentrates References
1. Paul J. Cell and tissue culture, 5th ed. New York (NY): Churchill Livingstone; 1975. Google Scholar
2. Lennette EH, Schmidt NJ, eds. Diagnostic procedures for viral and rickettsial infections, 5th ed. Washington DC: American Public Health Association; 1979. Google Scholar
3. Carroll KC, Pfaller MA, Landry ML, McAdam AJ, Patel R, Richter SS, Warnock DW, eds. Manual of clinical microbiology, 12th ed. Washington DC: American Society for Microbiology; 1980. Google Scholar
4. Capes-Davis A, Freshney RI. Freshney’s culture of animal cells: a manual of basic technique, 8th ed. New York (NY): Wiley-Blackwell; 2021. Google Scholar
5. Guidelines for research involving recombinant or synthetic nucleic acid molecules: Appendix D-I. Bethesda (MD): National Institutes of Health; 2019. Google Scholar
6. Schmidt NJ, Ho HH, Lennette EH. Propagation and isolation of group A coxsackieviruses in RD cells. J Clin Microbiol. 1975;2(3):183–185. Google Scholar
7. Schmidt NJ, Ho HH, Riggs JL, Lennette EH. Comparative sensitivity of various cell culture systems for isolation of viruses from wastewater and fecal samples. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1978;36(3):480–486. Google Scholar
8. Hsiung GD. Diagnostic virology: illustrated by light and electron microscopy, 3rd ed. New Haven (CT): Yale University Press; 1982 Google Scholar
9. Kelly S, Winsser J, Winkelstein W. Poliomyelitis and other enteric viruses in sewage. Amer J Pub Health. 1957;47:72–77. Google Scholar
10. Kelly S, Sanderson WW. Comparison of various tissue cultures for the isolation of enteroviruses. Amer J Pub Health 1962;52(3):455–459. Google Scholar
11. Pal SR, McQuillin J, Gardner PS. A comparative study of susceptibility of primary monkey kidney cells, Hep 2 cells and HeLa cells to a variety of faecal viruses. J Hyg Camb. 1963;61(4):493–498. Google Scholar
12. Lee LH, Phillips CA, South MA, Melnick JL, Yow MD. Enteric virus isolations in different cell cultures. Bull World Health Org. 1965;32(5):657–663. Google Scholar
13. Schmidt NJ, Ho HH, Lennette EH. Comparative sensitivity of human fetal diploid kidney cell strains and monkey kidney cell cultures for isolation of certain human viruses. Amer J Clin Pathol. 1965;43:297. Google Scholar
14. Berquist KR, Love GJ. Relative efficiency of three tissue culture systems for the primary isolation of viruses from feces. Health Lab Sci. 1966;3(4):195–199. Google Scholar
15. Herrmann EC. The usefulness of human fibroblast cell lines for the isolation of viruses. Amer J Epidemiol. 1967;85(2):200–206. Google Scholar
16. Faulkner RS, Van Rooyen CE. Studies on surveillance and survival of viruses in sewage in Nova Scotia. Can J Pub. Health 1969;60(9):345–350. Google Scholar
17. Lund E, Hedstrom CE. A study on sampling and isolation methods for the detection of virus in sewage. Water Res. 1969;3(11):823–832. Google Scholar
18. Shuval HI, Fattal B, Cymbalista S, Goldblum N. The phase-separation method for the concentration and detection of viruses in water. Water Res. 1969;3(4):225–240. Google Scholar
19. Schmidt NJ. Tissue culture in the laboratory diagnosis of viral infections. Amer J Clin Pathol. 1972;57(6):820–828. Google Scholar
20. Cooney MK. Relative efficiency of cell cultures for detection of viruses. Health Lab Sci. 1973;10(4):294–302. Google Scholar
21. Dahling DR, Berg G, Berman D. BGM: A continuous cell line more sensitive than primary rhesus and African green monkey kidney cells for the recovery of viruses from water. Health Lab Sci. 1974;11(4):275–282. Google Scholar
22. Schmidt NJ, Ho HH, Lennette EH. Comparative sensitivity of the BGM cell line for the isolation of enteric viruses. Health Lab Sci. 1976;13(2):115–117. Google Scholar
23. Hatch MH, Marchetti GE. Isolation of echoviruses with human embryonic lung fibroblast cells. Appl Microbiol. 1971;22(4):736–737. Google Scholar
24. Rutala WA, Shelton DF, Arbiter D. Comparative sensitivities of viruses to cell cultures and transport media. Amer J Clin Pathol. 1977;67:397. Google Scholar
25. Irving LG, Smith FA. One-year survey of enteroviruses, adenoviruses, and reoviruses isolated from effluent at an activated-sludge purification plant. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1981;41(1):51–59. Google Scholar
26. Morris R, Waite WM. Evaluation of procedures for recovery of viruses from water—II detection systems. Water Res. 1980;14(7):795–798. Google Scholar
27. Rodriguez RA, Gundy PM, Gerba CP. Comparison of BGM and PLC/PRC/5 cell lines for total culturable viral assay of treated sewage. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2008;74(9):2583–2587. Google Scholar
28. Leong LYC, Barrett SJ, Trussell RR. False-positives in testing of secondary sewage for enteric viruses. Abstracts from the Annual Meeting, American Society for Microbiology, Washington, D.C. 1978. Google Scholar
29. Kedmi S, Fattal B. Evaluation of the false-positive enteroviral plaque phenomenon occurring in sewage samples. Water Res. 1981;15(1):73–74. Google Scholar
30. Payment P, Trudel M. Influence of inoculum size, incubation temperature, and cell culture density on virus detection in environmental samples. Can J Microbiol. 1985;31(11):977–980. Google Scholar
31. Chang SL, Berg G, Busch KA, Stevenson RE, Clarke NA, Kabler PW. Application of the Most Probable Number method for estimating concentrations of animal viruses by tissue culture technique. Virology. 1958;6(1):27–42. Google Scholar
32. Chang SL. Statistics of the infective units of animal viruses. In: Berg G, ed. Transmission of viruses by the water route. New York (NY): Interscience; 1965. Google Scholar
33. Sobsey MD. Field monitoring techniques and data analysis. In: Baldwin LB, Davidson JM, Gerber JF, eds. Virus aspects of applying municipal waste to land. Gainseville (FL): University of Florida; 1976. Google Scholar
34. Thomas HA Jr. Bacterial densities from fermentation tube tests. J Amer Water Works Assoc. 1942;34(4):572–576. Google Scholar
35. Crow EL. Confidence intervals for a proportion. Biometrika. 1956;43(3/4):423–435. Google Scholar
36. Melnick JL, Rennick V, Hampil B, Schmidt NJ, Ho HH. Lyophilized combination pools of enterovirus equine antisera: Preparation and test procedures for the identification of field strains of 42 enteroviruses. Bull World Health Org. 1973;48(3):263–268. Google Scholar
37. Melnick JL, Rennick V, Hampil B, Schmidt NJ, Ho HH. Lyophilized combination pools of enterovirus equine antisera: Preparation and test procedures for the identification of field strains of 19 group A coxsackievirus serotypes. Intervirology 1977;8(3):172–181. Google Scholar
